Väitöskirja todentaa, että yliopistolähtöiset bioteknologiayritykset ovat muun tyyppisiä bioteknologiayrityksiä heikompia hankkimaan rahoitusta, rekrytoimaan osaavaa työvoimaa ja suunnittelemaan kestäviä liiketoimintamalleja.

Julkaisuvuosi: 2011
Sivuja: 229
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 47

Tutkimuksessa olen tarkastellut tuloverolainsäädännön muuttamisen aiheuttamia tuloverojen suhteellisia muutoksia koko väestön tasolla. Olen laatinut useita aikasarjoja keskeisille henkilöllistä tuloverotusta kuvaaville muuttujille. Aikasarjojen perusteella olen laatinut mittarin, joka kertoo tuloverotuksen reaalisen kiristymisen tai kevenemisen vuosittain. Työ on korostetusti kvantitatiivista taloushistoriaa, jossa kuvataan merkityksellisten muuttujien avulla suomalaisen tuloverotuksen rakennetta sekä muutoksia osana kansallista verojärjestelmää.

Keskeiset tuloverolainsäädännön mukaiset käsitteet, joita olen tutkimuksessani tarkastellut, liittyvät veronalaiseen tuloon, tulosta ja verosta tehtäviin vähennyksiin, verotettavaan tuloon, valtion progressiiviseen tuloveroasteikkoon, kunnan tuloveroprosenttiin sekä erilaisten veroluonteisten maksujen maksuprosentteihin. Olen tarkastellut tuloverotuksen reaalista muuttumista näiden, mahdollisimman relevanttien ja operationaalisten muuttujien avulla. Tutkimuksessa on lähdetty liikkeelle koko ajanjakson tuloista ja veroista. Tämän jälkeen on lähdetty purkamaan sitä, mistä tekijöistä verojen muutokset sekä veroasteiden muutokset aiheutuvat.

Suomessa kuten useimmissa muissakin kehittyneissä maissa progressiivisella tuloverotuksella on ollut merkittävä rooli luonnollisten henkilöiden tuloihin ja omaisuuteen kohdistuvassa verotuksessa. Tämän vuoksi olen tutkimuksessani erityisesti paneutunut tarkastelemaan valtion tuloveroasteikkoa, siihen liittyviä käsitteitä sekä asteikkoa kuvaavien suureiden mittaamista.

Kun tarkastellaan tuloverotusjärjestelmää kokonaisuutena, joka käsittää valtion ansiotulojen progressiivisen tuloverotuksen ohella suhteellisen tuloverotuksen sekä tuloverotuksen vähennysjärjestelmän, tarkastelu monimutkaistuu huomattavasti. Olen tarkastellut sekä vähennysjärjestelmää että suhteellista tuloverotusta samasta näkökulmasta kuin valtion tuloveroasteikkoja. Nämä tulokset olen raportoinut erikseen.

Saadut erillistulokset olen yhdistänyt indeksiksi, joka kuvaa millä tavoin luonnollisten henkilöiden tuloverotus (vuodesta 1993 alkaen ansiotulojen) verotus on reaalisesti muuttunut vuosittain. Indeksi kertoo, millä tavoin julkisen vallan tuloverotusta koskevat päätökset ovat vuosittain reaalisesti kiristäneet tai keventäneet tuloverotusta koko kansantalouden tasolla. Tätä indeksiä, jota kutsun termillä ”reaalitulon veroasteen indeksi”, olen verrannut muihin luonnollisten henkilöiden ja palkansaajien tuloverotusta kuvaaviin muuttujiin.

The study seeks to find out whether the real burden of the personal taxation has increased or decreased. In order to determine this, we investigate how the same real income has been taxed in different years. Whenever the taxes for the same real income for a given year are higher than for the base year, the real tax burden has increased. If they are lower, the real tax burden has decreased.

The study thus seeks to estimate how changes in the tax regulations affect the real tax burden. It should be kept in mind that the progression in the central government income tax schedule ensures that a real change in income will bring about a change in the tax ration. In case of inflation when the tax schedules are kept nominally the same will also increase the real tax burden.

In calculations of the study it is assumed that the real income remains constant, so that we can get an unbiased measure of the effects of governmental actions in real terms. The main factors influencing the amount of income taxes an individual must pay are as follows :

– Gross income (income subject to central and local government taxes).
– Deductions from gross income and taxes calculated according to tax schedules.
– The central government income tax schedule (progressive income taxation).
– The rates for the local taxes and for social security payments (proportional taxation).

In the study we investigate how much a certain group of taxpayers would have paid in taxes according to the actual tax regulations prevailing indifferent years if the income were kept constant in real terms. Other factors affecting tax liability are kept strictly unchanged (as constants). The resulting taxes, expressed in fixed prices, are then compared to the taxes levied in the base year (hypothetical taxation). The question we are addressing is thus how much taxes a certain group of taxpayers with the same socioeconomic characteristics would have paid on the same real income according to the actual tax regulations prevailing in different years. This has been suggested as the main way to measure real changes in taxation, although there are several alternative measures with essentially the same aim.

Next an aggregate indicator of changes in income tax rates is constructed. It is designed to show how much the taxation of income has increased or reduced from one year to next year on average. The main question remains : How aggregation over all income levels should be performed? In order to determine the average real changes in the tax scales the difference functions (difference between actual and hypothetical taxation functions) were aggregated using taxable income as weights. Besides the difference functions, the relative changes in real taxes can be used as indicators of change. In this case the ratio between the taxes computed according to the new and the old situation indicates whether the taxation has become heavier or easier.

The relative changes in tax scales can be described in a way similar to that used in describing the cost of living, or by means of price indices. For example, we can use Laspeyres’ price index formula for computing the ratio between taxes determined by the new tax scales and the old tax scales. The formula answers the question : How much more or less will be paid in taxes according to the new tax scales than according to the old ones when the real income situation corresponds to the old situation.

Julkaisuvuosi: 2011
Sivuja: 276
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Suomi
ETLA A 46

The first article focuses on the variety of outcomes that university researchers achieve when interacting with companies. It identifies whether a researcher’s boundary-spanning position in research collaboration networks is connected with these outcomes. The results suggest that university-industry interaction leads to both tangible and intangible outcomes and that boundary-spanning plays a role in achieving them.

The second article highlights the importance of understanding the unique characteristics of the transferred technology. It compares the specificities of nanotechnology to other science-based technologies such as biotechnology. The empirical results indicate that nanotechnology differs from other science-based technologies in only a few dimensions of technology transfer related to the basic research orientation of nanotechnology.

The third article emphasises the role of smaller technology-dedicated companies in the diffusion process. The paper highlights the importance of understanding the economic value of the patent portfolio of biotechnology-dedicated companies with respect to the companies’ future growth expectations. The results indicate that there exists a positive connection between growth expectations and the value of patent portfolios; this value could be signalled to external financiers.

The fourth article identifies links between smaller technology-dedicated companies and larger established companies. The latter may act as industrialists when introducing new science-based products and processes to the market. The results of this paper identify several potential diffusion channels for nanotechnology in both traditional and high-tech industries.

The articles provide implications for research, policy and practice. The key implications relate to the role of interdisciplinarity as an important ingredient in producing more industry related knowledge, the technology specificity of the technology transfer process and the different roles smaller and larger companies have in technology diffusion.

Julkaisuvuosi: 2010
Sivuja: 115
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 45

The first essay explores the early-career gender wage gap in the Finnish private sector. I find that the gender wage gap increases significantly during the first ten years after labour market entry accounting for most of the life-time increase in the gender wage gap. The more detailed analysis of the factors contributing to the early-career gender wage focuses on university graduates. This mitigates the problems caused by the most disturbing shortcoming of the data, namely the lack of information on working hours and part-time status. In Finland, part-time rates among university graduates are very low as well as the gender difference in these rates. I consider several explanations for the gender wage gap based on the human capital theory, job mobility and labour market segregation. The results suggest that about 20 to 26 per cent of the average early-career gender wage gap is explained by gender differences in qualifications considered. Of the investigated factors gender differences in the field of education and work experience matter most.

In the second essay, I investigate in more detail the role of university majors in explaining the gender wage gap. Using data from the Confederation of Finnish Industries, significant gender differences in majors among white-collar workers are found. These differences in education account for about 38 per cent of the gender wage gap among young white-collar workers with a bachelor-level degree after controlling for age, year, gender, region, industry and firm size. The corresponding number for young white-collar workers with a master-level degree is roughly 31 per cent. There are no considerable differences in the effects of majors between new entrants and white-collar workers having more work experience. Furthermore, similarity of the results between OLS and panel methods controlling for unobserved individual factors implies that the effect of university majors is unlikely to reflect unobserved heterogeneity. Finally, women’s gains from equalizing educational distributions do not depend on the price structures used.

Using data from the Finnish manufacturing sector, the last essay studies the factors contributing to the gender gap in early-career wage growth. The analysis shows that the size of the gender gap in wage growth varies with mobility status, the gap being much higher when changing employers compared to within-firm wage growth. Several explanations for the gender gap in wage growth based on human capital theory and theory of compensating wage differentials are considered. However, much of the gap in wage growth remains unexplained. Further analysis documents that the female penalty in wage growth increases significantly as we move along the conditional wage growth distribution with a sharp acceleration in the gap at the top of the distribution.

JEL: J6, J16, J24, J31, J71
Julkaisuvuosi: 2008
Sivuja: 167
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 44

Julkaisuvuosi: 2008
Sivuja: 121
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 43

Julkaisuvuosi: 2007
Sivuja: 187
Hinta: 42€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 42

Julkaisuvuosi: 2005
Sivuja: 186
Hinta: Published by Springer – click the link above
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 39

The full report is available for download from Helsinki University of Technology’s website.

Julkaisuvuosi: 2004
Sivuja: 172
Hinta: 30€
Kieli: Englanti
ETLA A 40